Cultures and traditions of Norway
Culture Name:
Norwegian.
Alternative Names of the culture:
Norsk (in Norwegian), Norse (historical)
Orientation:
Identification. The name Norge ("the
Northern Way") originally pertained to a region of the country before
political consolidation under Harald the Fair-Haired around 900 C.E. In later use, the country's name indicates its location on the
northern periphery of Europe. Some of the northerly sections of the country are
home to at least two main groups (coastal and mountain) of an indigenous
population of Sami (previously called Lapps) with a separate language and
distinct cultural traditions. Some groups of Sami practice reindeer nomadism and
range across northern Sweden and Finland. A smaller Gypsy population also was
part of the otherwise homogeneous population. For humanitarian reasons, in the
late twentieth century, the country welcomed asylum seekers and immigrants from
other countries. Norwegians have an acute sense of identity fostered by a
nineteenth century national romantic movement and by the country's emergence in
1905 as an independent constitutional monarchy. The small scale of Norwegian
society, with a population of little more than four million, also promotes
cultural sharing.
Location and Geography. Norway is situated on the western side of the
Scandinavian peninsula, which it shares with its eastern neighbor, Sweden. The
North Sea borders the country on the west, and the Barent Sea lies to the
north. Spitsbergen, a group of islands four hundred miles to the north in the
Arctic Ocean, is a Norwegian dependency. The country also shares borders with
Finland and Russia in its northern regions. A long and narrow landmass, Norway
extends more than 1,100 miles from north to south and varies in width between
270 miles and 4 miles. One-third of the country lies north of the Arctic
Circle. The dominant feature of the topography is a backbone of mountains
extending down the Scandinavian peninsula, with fjords, or long inlets of the
sea, penetrating inland on the west and south. With a total area of 125,181
square miles (324,200 square kilometers), much of the country is dominated by
rugged mountainous or coastal landscapes that have made tourism an important
industry. Only about 3 percent of the land area is suitable for raising crops,
and nearly half of that land is situated in the east, near Oslo, the capital,
where broad, open valleys produce grain and root crops. The west coast traditionally
has supported smaller farms perched along the fjords or nestled in mountain
valleys. Farming and fishing have always been major occupations in this region.
Trondheim, a medieval cathedral city on the west coast, also has an
agricultural hinterland. The northern region constitutes the largest part of
the country, with 35 percent of the land area and only 12 percent of the
population. Fishing has been the major traditional occupation in this region.
Oslo, which was called Kristiania before the nation gained independence, has
long been associated with major governmental functions.
Demography. In January 2000, the total population was 4,478,497. Approximately thirty thousand to forty thousand of those residents self-identify as Sami. The first census which was taken in 1769, recorded 723,618 residents. For most of the nineteenth century, the population grew at an average annual rate of 1.7 percent in spite of substantial migration to the United States during the second half of that century. The post–World War II growth rate declined to about 0.2 percent annually.
Immigrants constitute just under 6 percent of
the total population. The largest number of immigrants
came from Sweden and
Denmark, with the third largest contingent coming from Pakistan.
In 1999, the population grew by 0.7 percent, the
largest annual rate of growth since the first half of the 1950s. This unusual
growth is accounted for by the arrival of 19,300 persons from abroad.
Approximately 67,200 persons with a political refugee background lived in
Norway at the beginning of 1999. Among the recent refugees, the largest groups
are from Bosnia (11,000), Vietnam (10,500), and Iran (8,100). Refugees are
concentrated in and around the largest cities, with approximately one-third
living in the Oslo area.
Linguistic Affiliation. The major languages of the indigenous minority
and majority populations are Samisk (Lappish), a Finnic language, and two
official Norwegian languages, Bokmål and Nynorsk, both of which are Germanic
languages. Bokmål, or "book language," is derived from the
Danish-influenced Norwegian used in the eastern region. A product of the
national romantic movement, Nynorsk, or "New Norwegian," was
constructed in the nineteenth century from peasant dialects to create a
genuinely Norwegian written language. Formulated by Ivar Aasen, a self-taught
linguist from the west coast, Nynorsk was consciously constructed to reveal a
clear relationship to Old Norse, linking contemporary Norway with the Viking
age.
Symbolism. The flag, folk costumes, the land (or
landscape), and the home are the major symbols of national unity. The flag (a
red background with blue stripes outlined in white) is owned and flown not only
by public agencies but by many private individuals. On Constitution Day (17
May), citizens appear at public celebrations carrying small flags and wearing
red, white, and blue streamers pinned to their clothing. In the year 2000,
there were thirteen official flag days. Folk or national costumes (bunad) are
owned by large numbers of both men and women. Based on local traditional
peasant apparel, women's costumes include elaborate skirts, blouses, jackets,
stockings, and shoes adorned with silver pins and decorations. Because of
increased affluence in recent decades, more individuals own costumes, which are
considered correct attire for any festive or formal occasion. The design and
colors of the costumes vary according to locality so that each large fjord or
valley has a distinctive costume. Fostered by national romanticism, folk
costumes are partially constructed traditions, with some historically authentic
elements and some new elements. The costume for the city of Bergen, for
example, was designed in 1956.
The national anthem affirms a love for the land
and the importance of the home as symbols of nationhood. Festive days in this
home-centered society often feature a public celebration followed by gatherings
of families and relatives in people's homes. Entertaining is done at home, not at
restaurants or bars. Homes are comfortable refuges and are decorated to express
the identity of the family. Because there is less geographic mobility than is
the case in some other countries, family members and relatives tend to live in
the same region over a number of generations and identify with the local area.
This attachment to place is also apparent in people's relationship to nature.
Half the nation's families have access to nearby ski huts, cabins, or boats,
and virtually everyone engages in outdoor pursuits such as skiing, hiking, and
boating. In a variety of ways, Norwegians aim to preserve rather than transform
the local natural landscape. At the same time, they attempt to preserve the
cultural traditions of the locality through numerous folk museums and other
specialized heritage organizations.
History and Ethnic Relations:
Emergence of the Nation. Norway claims the heritage of early Norse
seafarers, raiders, colonizers, explorers, and merchants for whom the
"Viking Age" (793 to 1050 C.E. ) was named. In the
ninth century Harald Fairhair became the first king of all of Norway,
consolidating smaller kingdoms through alliance and conquest. Harald's
descendant, Olaf Tryggvesson (Olaf I), converted to Christianity while in
England and came to Norway in 995 to force conversion of the country from the
Norse religion. Killed in 1030 at the Battle of Stiklestad, Olaf II (Saint
Olaf) was the first king to organize an administration for church and state.
His brother, Harald III, was killed invading England in 1066. The Black Death
devastated the country in 1349–1350, killing at least one-third of the
population. A weakened Norway was politically joined with Sweden and Denmark at
the Union of Kalmar, in 1397. Danish kings ruled Norway until 1814.
The emergence of the nation-state can be traced
to the development of a national culture, then to that of a national identity,
and finally to the political events that led to the country's final emergence
as an independent nation in 1905. The Napoleonic Wars resulted in the
dissolution of the union between Denmark and Norway in 1814, the year in which
the Norwegian constitution was established. Norway had been a province of
Denmark for nearly four hundred years before it was ceded to Sweden. The union
with Sweden was dissolved in 1905.
The
foundation for the development of a national culture can be traced to the
national romanticism of an intellectual elite. In the late eighteenth century,
Norway was predominantly rural, with a tiny elite of religious and government
officials under the king of Denmark. Those administrators began to collect
information about the topography and landscape of the national regions and the
natural history of the land. Later, the educated bourgeoisie wrote about the
history of the country, tracing the connection between the present and the
Icelandic sagas, the Viking period, the medieval period, and the decline of
Norway in the period before the union with Denmark (1380–1814). Those
intellectuals also began recording and describing rural culture, including
folktales, architecture, customs, clothing, mythology, music, and peasant
dialects. From a national romantic perspective, this information helped make
the case for a distinct Norwegian land, culture, and history quite different
from those of other Nordic countries. Rural culture became identified as
Norwegian culture, a culture that could be traced back to Viking times.
National Identity. The idea of a distinct Norwegian culture piqued
the interest of writers, painters, dramatists, musicians, and religious
leaders. The culture of the rural peasants was not the culture of the
intellectual elite, but the elites reinterpreted and identified with that
tradition. By the middle of the nineteenth century, schoolbooks reflected the
theme of a distinct, rural Norwegian culture, as did a variety of popular
journals. Writers conveyed the notion that everything of true value was found
close to home, in the everyday life of simple people. In the second half of the
century, voluntary organizations that promoted popular enlightenment helped
shape the consciousness of a common culture and history. In the national
dialogues that followed, a national identity was formed, contributing to the
eventual dissolution of the union with Sweden.
Ethnic Relations. Relations between the majority population and
the indigenous Sami peoples have been problematic on occasion. In 1999, the
United Nations Human Rights Commission asked Norway to explain the delay in
giving the Sami population self-determination. Defining the population has been
difficult in that many people in that population who were not engaged in
reindeer nomadism chose or felt compelled to assimilate into mainstream
Norwegian culture. The establishment in Karasjok, north Norway, of a Sami
parliament to coordinate relations with local, regional, and national
government offices has helped draw attention to the needs of that population.
The Sami parliament and the governments of Norway, Sweden, and Finland are
beginning to coordinate Sami issues across national boundaries.
Because immigration has been tightly controlled,
immigrants from non-Scandinavian countries have not constituted a large or
visible minority until recently. In the 1980s, as the attitude toward asylum
seekers became somewhat less sympathetic, survey data showed that about half
the respondents felt that those newcomers were given too much special
treatment.
Surveys have shown that outside of business
dealings, relatively few Norwegians have contact with the immigrant
populations. Those who have had informal contact with immigrants tend to be
sympathetic and positive toward them, but those who have not had such contact
tend to be less positive. In a survey in 2000, 64 percent of residents agreed
that the country should continue to take in as many immigrants and asylum
seekers as it does currently. Over 90 percent of the surveyed population agreed
that immigrants should have the same job opportunities as native residents,
affirming a basic belief in equality of opportunity.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space:
The national culture is informed by an
anti-urban bias that idealizes the natural environment and rural life. Regional
policies are aimed at providing a high level of services and amenities in less
populated regions to encourage people to remain there rather than migrate to
urban centers. Cities such as Oslo, Bergen, and Trondheim have low population
densities since they incorporate substantial areas of undeveloped
"natural" forests within their boundaries that are used by the
residents for recreation. In Oslo, streetcars run through the city to the edge
of the forest, where they empty their cargo of hikers and skiers. While all the
cities have parks for relaxation and enjoyment, those manicured urban
environments are not as culturally important as the wilder and less regulated
woods, mountains, and seashores. A walk in the woods on Sunday morning, either
on a challenging trail or on the "family path" suitable for baby
buggies and wheelchairs, is considered almost essential for coping with urban stress.
In the winter, these paths become cross-country ski trails. Cities, thus,
attempt to incorporate natural areas to counterbalance the built environment.
Similarly, residential dwellings usually have their own mode of indoor-outdoor
living. Single-family homes and apartment houses usually have a deck, balcony,
or porch that gives residents convenient access to the outdoors.
While many older residences have straight
sidewalks and broad, open lawns, many newer houses are nestled into their own
miniature woods of closely planted trees and evergreen shrubs. The distinction
between the built environment and the natural environment is often blurred as
these two areas are made to interpenetrate.
Except perhaps for Oslo's City Hall, which
serves as a landmark for ships coming up the fjord to the harbor, government
architecture is usually less awe-inspiring and intimidating than inviting and
approachable. The Storting, or parliament hall, in Oslo is
built to a human scale and is embedded within a busy downtown area with considerable
foot traffic. The Royal Palace, which is situated on a small hill overlooking a
busy street, is the destination for thousands of cheerful marchers in the
Constitution Day parade as they greet and are greeted by the royal family
waving from the balcony.
Seating in parks and public places is not
conducive to conversation among strangers. Acquaintances can find seating next
to each other, but not in an arrangement that encourages eye contact and
conversation. This configuration allows people to use public space without
drawing attention to themselves or invading the personal space of others. In
homes, in contrast, furniture often is arranged to encourage conversation among
family members and friends. Homes should be furnished to reflect the good taste
of their owners, often with the clean simplicity of Scandinavian design, using
natural materials such as wood and wool.
Food and Economy:
Food in Daily Life. The food considered by many to be most typically
Norwegian is brown cheese that is thinly sliced with a cheese plane (a
Norwegian invention) and eaten on bread. Breakfasts (frokost) usually
consists of coffee, breads (including flatbread or crisp bread), pickled or
smoked fish, cold meats, perhaps boiled eggs, and milk products such as cheese,
butter, yogurt, and varieties of sour milk. Breakfast may be more substantial
than the noon meal (lunsj) which may consist of an open-faced
sandwich of bread, cheese, paté, or cold meat, perhaps accompanied by a piece
of fruit and coffee. Fish and meat (pork, beef, lamb, chicken, and whale) and
boiled potatoes, usually served with gravy or melted butter, traditionally have
defined the late afternoon meal (middag). Root vegetables such
as carrots often supplement potatoes. Beer or wine is drunk occasionally in the
evening. Pizza and hamburgers are popular occasional meals and often are served
at fast-food restaurants. Cafés and cafeterias serve open-faced sandwiches with
cold meats, smoked fish, or cheese as well as simple but substantial meals of
meat or fish and boiled potatoes. Chinese, Indian, and other ethnic restaurants
often occupy the medium-price niche, while restaurants with seafood and
continental cuisine are the most expensive. In the last several decades, the
cuisine has become more diversified and international. The consumption of fats
has gone down in the last twenty years, the consumption of meat has never been
higher, and the consumption of fish has gone down
and is much lower than
recommended by the Nutritional Council. The popularity of potatoes has
declined, while that of rice and pasta has gone up. Cereal consumption is
stable. Norway has continued to hunt minke whales along its coast. Whale meat
is eaten as steaks or in a stew.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. For Constitution Day, many families
traditionally eat a meal of flat bread, thinly sliced dried meats, and milk
porridge, with beer or aquavit as a beverage. Christmas meal traditions vary by
region and may include roast pork, other meat, or lutefisk. On festive
occasions, both restaurants and family meals may feature a kaldt
bord with a large array of cold meats, cheeses, shrimp, smoked or
pickled fish, salads, jams, and soft and crisp breads. Cloudberries and
lingonberries, both of which grow wild on mountain plateaus, are particular
favorites.
Basic Economy. The country is highly dependent on international
trade for manufactured consumer goods but has a trade surplus. Most employment
is in highly specialized services and manufacturing, with only a small
workforce in the traditional occupations of forestry, farming, and fishing. In
a labor force of more than two million workers, approximately 72 percent are in
services, 23 percent work in industry, and 5 percent engage in agriculture,
forestry, and fishing. The currency is the Krone (Crown).
Land Tenure and Property. The allocation of farmland is regulated
carefully to encourage the continuity of ownership within the family line.
Farms are not divided among heirs, thus avoiding the fragmentation of farms
into small, economically nonviable units. The lineal descendants of a farmer
have the first right to purchase a farm. Conflicts over farm boundaries and the
surreptitious movement of boundary stones are part of the folklore of most
agricultural districts. Hikers have the right to walk on unplanted farmland.
Commercial Activities. Firms produce, package, distribute, and sell
food products, beverages, textiles, clothing, footwear, wood products,
furniture, and chemicals for domestic consumption. Printing, publishing, and
media production are important enterprises for a highly literate nation that is
a world leader in the consumption of newspapers, magazines, and books per
capita.
Major Industries. As a consequence of the discovery and
exploitation of North Sea oil in the 1970s, Norway has become the world's
second largest exporter of oil and natural gas. Much of this production is
managed by Statoil, a government enterprise. Since 1993 the country has
exported hydroelectricity, which it produces in excess of domestic needs.
Although shipbuilding has declined, Norway has one of the leading merchant
fleets, with approximately 762 ships. Other exports include transportation
equipment, electrometallurgical products, electrochemical products (processed
with hydroelectric power), paper and pulp from the extensive forests, and fish,
increasingly produced in fish farms in coastal waters. For the home market, the
country produces equipment, furniture, and textiles. About half the
manufacturing firms are located along the Oslo fjord. Livestock are the most
important products of the subsidized agricultural sector.
Trade. Norway exports goods to its main trading
partners: the European Union, Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom, Netherlands,
France, and the United States. Exports include petroleum and natural gas,
hydroelectric power, metals, chemicals, paper pulp, and fish. The United States
is a significant importer of smoked salmon. Manufactured goods, machinery, and
chemicals are imported from the trading partners.
Division of Labor. Government, labor, and management are integrated
into a centralized industrial planning system. Since the 1970s, the principle
of codetermination has meant that labor and management increasingly share the
determination of daily operations and longer-term planning. Workers typically
have a great deal of autonomy. As a consequence of this trend in industrial
democracy, emphasis is placed on training and the upgrading of workers' skills.
In contrast to countries where labor is cheap and training is limited, decision
making frequently is delegated to lower-level workers. The division of labor is
based more on skills than on status and seniority.
Social Stratification:
Classes and Castes. The ethos of egalitarianism is reflected in the
highly progressive marginal tax rate on personal incomes. While income
differences are relatively flat, there is a small proportion of extremely rich
owners and managers of merchant fleets. Although the affluent are likely to own
ski huts in the mountains, their huts may not be better furnished than those of
less affluent workers. Conspicuous consumption is not admired. Leisure time is
an important resource for industrial workers, who in 2002 will have five weeks
of vacation annually. Counting national holidays, this brings the number of
working hours in the year down to 1,703 for industrial workers. Immigrant
populations have tended to move into some of the less desirable and less
well-paid occupations such as cleaners and fast food workers.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Affluent individuals signal their wealth by
driving a luxury car, wearing expensive clothing, and taking expensive
vacations. They may have a posh Oslo accent. However, these differences in
possessions and advantages do not symbolize differences in moral worth. The
author Aksel Sandemose, in En Flyktning krysser sitt spor (1953),
described the law of the fictional village of Jante, which warns that "you
should not believe that you are better than we are." The Law of Jante
expresses a widespread cultural belief in egalitarianism.
Political Life:
Government. Norway is a constitutional monarchy that divides
responsibility between the parliament (Storting) and the
King's Council of State, which consists of a prime minister and other ministers
of state. The Storting, which consists of 165 representatives,
is the supreme authority and controls finances. Representatives are elected by
direct vote for a four-year term. One-quarter of the representatives serve in
the upper chamber (Lagting), and the rest form the lower
chamber (Odelsting). Local government is represented by 450
municipalities in eighteen counties.
Leadership and Political Officials. Leaders are supposed to be articulate and
dedicated spokespersons for the policies of their parties. The major parties,
listed roughly in order of their popularity in recent elections, are the
Norwegian Labor Party (Arbeiderpartiet), a socialist party
affiliated with labor unions; the Progress Party (Fremskrittspartiet), a
nationalistic party; the Conservative Party ( Høyre ); the
Christian People's Party (Kristelig Folkepartiet), which
supports the use of the principles of Christianity in politics; the Center
Party (Senterpartiet), which originally focused on agrarian
issues; the Socialist Left Party (Sosialistisk Venstrepartiet); and
the Liberal Party (Venstre), a reform party. Coalition
governments that rely on the cooperation of two or more parties are not
uncommon. Party leaders receive considerable media attention and are supposed
to be accessible to the electorate. They are not likely to respond to offers of
gifts or special privileges.
Social Problems and Control. The judicial system has three levels: the
district (Herredsrett) and city
courts (Byrett), the
High Court (Lagmannsrett) with six jurisdictions in the
nation; and the Supreme Court (Høyesterett). Each municipality
has a conciliation council (Forliksråd), where civil cases go
first for mediation and possible out-of-court settlement. If this effort fails,
the case can be taken to the district or city court. An "ombud"
system has been established to hear complaints about actions by government
agencies and private firms. The crime rate is about ten reported crimes per
hundred thousand population. While the rate of crimes against persons is increasing,
most crimes involve property.
Military Activity. National military service is required, with the
option of community service for conscientious objectors. The nation has an
army, navy, and air force; is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO); and participates in peacekeeping operations. Norway spends 3 percent of
the gross national product on defense.
Social Welfare and Change Programs:
After 1945, the National Insurance Scheme was
developed to manage and allocate resources for health, old age, disabilities,
widows, widowers, children, and single parents. Approximately 15 percent of
government expenditures are for health services. Nongovernmental organizations
play an important role in supplementing this welfare system in partnership with
the government. Special attention is given to organizations that support
disadvantaged citizens through subsidies granted by local governments.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other
Associations:
Approximately 62 percent of the population
belonged to at least one voluntary organization in 1995. Historically,
voluntary organizations were first developed in the middle of the nineteenth
century as agents of change to support the social movements that were sweeping
the country. Voluntary organizational life has been based on unpaid
participation, personal membership, and commitment to egalitarian democratic
principles. While participation in religious and temperance organizations has
declined, membership has increased in organizations devoted to recreation and
outdoor sports.
Gender Roles and Statuses:
Division of Labor by Gender. In the contemporary period, Norway has followed
an ideology, if not always the practice, of gender neutrality in access to economic,
political, social, and religious roles. Women entered the workforce in larger
numbers during the 1970s but continued to be involved in unpaid work to a
greater degree than were men. There are few women in the upper levels of
management of businesses and industries. According to the United Nations
Development Programme, which created a "Gender-Related Development
Index" to measure achievements in increased life expectancy, educational
attainment, and income equality for men and women in 146 countries, Norway
ranked second behind Canada and ahead of Sweden.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. The cause of gender equality was advanced by the
women's movement of the 1960s. At that time, nine of ten women with small
children did not work outside the home. Women began to enter the labor force in
greater numbers with the increase in industrialization. Now nearly eight of ten
women are employed outside the home.
Education is deliberately gender-neutral, with
the goal of giving everyone an equal opportunity for self-realization. In the
1980s, women entered
higher education in
larger numbers, and constituted approximately 55 percent of the students at
universities in 2000. In law and administration, men and women are accorded
equality, with parental leaves available for both. Many of the roles
traditionally reserved for men, such as the military and politics, are now
integrated. In 1981, at age forty-one, Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland first served
as the prime minister, the youngest person and the first woman to do so.
Several political parties follow the "sixty/ forty" rule in
establishing committees, with women constituting at least 40 percent of the
membership.
The armed services are sexually integrated,
although the majority of service personnel are men. In 1998, the commander of a
coastal defense submarine was a woman, with a crew of twenty men and one other woman.
Some women's organizations regard this as tokenism and state that when the
critical mass of 30 percent women is achieved, they will be pleased with the
progress of integration of the armed forces.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship:
Marriage. Marriages are supposed to be romantic love
matches between two individuals with similar values and perspectives. Marrying
for economic, social, or political reasons would seem improper to most people.
When King Harald, then the crown prince, wished to marry a commoner rather than
seek a bride among the royal families of Europe, the nation approved.
Currently, 38 percent of residents are married,
compared with 47 percent in 1978. The divorce rate has doubled in the last
twenty years. In this generation, married women have worked for pay outside the
household to a greater degree than was the case in earlier generations.
Domestic Unit. Currently, families usually consist of a
husband, a wife, and no more than two children. Single-parent families are
increasingly common. Two major urban family cultures, with a rural variant,
exist. These cultures include the urban middle-class family, which may focus on
a fair exchange of services and an equal sharing of tasks, and the urban
working-class family, which may focus on the common good of the family rather
than the needs of the individual members. Urban families often create symbolic
boundaries between themselves and others; internally, they value "peace
and quiet" as a theme of family life. The typical rural farm family
focuses on maintaining a committed, harmonious unit. Divorce seems to be more
common in the first type of family.
Inheritance. At marriage all material goods become joint
property. A couple may enter into a contract specifying that, in case of
divorce, each will retain the goods they brought to the marriage. This may be
important in the case of farms and other significant property. Surviving
spouses have a right to continue living in the family house until death.
Children inherit equally from the parents.
Kin Groups. Three-generation family households exist most
commonly in rural areas. Parents and children often choose to live close to
each other. Relatives on both sides of a marriage are invited for life-crisis
ceremonies such as baptism, confirmation, marriage, and death.
Socialization:
Infant Care. With the institutionalization of parental leave
from employment, both parents can be available to provide care for infants.
Traditionally, infants were regarded as defenseless and in need of constant
care. Infants sleep in separate beds or cribs, either in their parents' bedroom
or in a separate room. Breastfeeding on demand is now usual, but in previous
generations was scheduled about every four hours. Fresh air is considered
important and often babies are allowed to sleep outdoors in a pram.
Stimulation, exploration, and play, both indoors and outdoors, are now
emphasized. Some mothers carry infants close to their breast in carrying
slings, but the use of prams is more common. Many parents use day care
facilities for one to six year olds, although this form of institutional care
for the youngest ages is controversial. For older toddlers, the social
experience of interacting with others in day care facilities is highly valued.
Child Rearing and Education. The national culture tends to be extremely
child-centered. A national welfare system for children was enacted as early as
1896, and in 1981, a national ombudsperson for children was established.
Ideally, children should be cooperative and independent. However, socialization
tends to be permissive since children are not taught boundary-setting rules and
manners early. Childhood lasts longer than it does in many European countries,
with adolescence not ending before graduation from high school. Since numerous
mothers are employed, many children are socialized in child care facilities,
either privately or through the local authority. Paid babysitters, usually
young girls, may provide child care in cities when grandmothers are not
available.
Confirmation as a member of the church is an
important rite of passage. The ceremony is followed by a party to which
neighbors and relatives are invited. Girls usually are given a bunad, or
folk costume.
In traditional rural society, children were
transformed into responsible adults, participating in adult economic
activities, without going through a culturally recognized stage of adolescence.
In the late twentieth century, adolescence became much more important for
developing an identity separate from one's parents.
Higher Education. Vocational training or higher education for the
majority of citizens is emphasized. After ten years of compulsory schooling, students
may go on to an upper secondary school and then to one of the four universities
or many colleges. Education accounts for approximately 14 percent of government
expenditures.
Etiquette:
Residents tend to be egalitarian, private, and
noncompetitive. Gender equality is observed in most social settings. People
rarely use the polite or formal form of address; the use of the informal
pronoun for personal address is almost universal. Independence and
self-sufficiency are valued. Being indebted by borrowing or receiving favors
makes people uncomfortable. Individuals generally do not call attention to
themselves through loud speech or flamboyant behavior. Personal space is
respected, and so individuals stand well apart from each other when conversing.
Punctuality is expected both in business and in social life.
People may be reserved among strangers but are
warm and friendly once a relationship has been established. One should not
inquire about personal issues unless one is well acquainted with a person.
Respect for each individual's dignity is expected.
Competition is downplayed in most settings, Even
the victors in sports contests are supposed to be humble and not obviously
proud. After the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, King Harald worried that
perhaps the nation had not been a good host since its athletes had won so many
medals.
Religion:
Religious Beliefs. The Norwegian-born Viking Olav Tryggvason was
baptized as a Christian in
London in 994 C.E. Soon afterward, King Olav brought Christianity to his homeland,
converting first the leaders and later the farmers. In 1536, the Reformation
came to the area, with the consequence that a greater emphasis was placed on
personal faith. In 1814, the Evangelical Lutheran religion was named the
official religion of the state, but the constitution also guaranteed freedom of
religion. The pietist movement, which was particularly strong in the country in
the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, posed an alternative to the
state church and contributed to an individual sense of religious commitment
unmediated by the clergy. The state church subscribes to a belief in God, Jesus
Christ, and the Holy Ghost. The main religious holidays celebrate belief in the
birth, death, and resurrection of Christ. Other religious groups such as Roman
Catholics, Pentecostalists, Seventh Day Adventists, Baptists, and Methodists,
receive state subsidies. In recent years, immigrant populations have brought
Islam to the nation.
Religious Practitioners. The king is the head of the state church, which
employs a system of bishops and priests in the administrative structure. Local
priests hold religious services and perform baptisms, confirmations, weddings,
and funerals. The king appointed the first woman priest in 1961 and the first
woman bishop in 1993. More than seventy nationally organized Christian
voluntary organizations reinforce religious beliefs and practices. Those
organizations also carry out missionary work at home and abroad and help with
youth work and welfare.
Rituals and Holy Places. During the medieval period, the holy shrine of
Saint Olav in the cathedral at Trondheim was a destination for pilgrims. In the
contemporary period, 87 percent of the population belongs to the state church.
While about seven million church visits are recorded annually, many people are
more likely to be found on ski slopes or hiking trails than in church on
Sunday. Religious services in the state church occur weekly and on the major
religious holidays, including Holy Thursday, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension,
and Whitmonday.
Death and the Afterlife. According to the doctrine of the state church,
souls reside in heaven with Jesus after death. After the funeral, the body of
the deceased is cremated or interred in a graveyard, usually adjacent to a
church.
Medicine and Health Care:
Norway is one of the healthiest countries in the
world, with an average life expectancy of nearly seventy-eight years. Modern
medicine replaced folk
medical beliefs in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Currently, there are over fifteen thousand
doctors and nearly sixty thousand nurses. The compulsory National Insurance
Scheme provides free hospital care and modest charges for medicines and primary
care. Approximately 15 percent of government expenditures go for health care.
Secular Celebrations:
The major holidays are New Year's Day (1
January), Labor Day (1 May), Constitution Day (17 May), Christmas (25 December),
and Boxing Day (26 December). Labor Day is celebrated by the labor unions, with
parades in the larger towns. The most important celebration of nationhood is on
Constitution Day, which is an occasion for massive public parades by voluntary
organizations, bands, unions, schools, and other civic groups. Christmas and
Boxing Day are focused on family visits and gift giving.
The Arts and Humanities:
Support for the Arts. Because of the small population base, the
artistic community is challenged to earn a living. Government subsidies
coordinated by thirty nationwide artists' organizations have provided a
particularly Norwegian solution. Professional artists receive a minimum income
until retirement. Through a variety of cooperative arrangements with counties
and municipalities, the government has sponsored the creation of touring
cultural organizations, bringing concerts, theater, and art exhibitions to
smaller towns.
Literature. The Icelandic sagas of Snorri Sturlusson
(1178–1241) often are considered the beginning of Norwegian literature,
followed by The King's Mirror, a thirteenth century work.
Pedar Clausson Friis (1545–1614) wrote descriptive works about the country and
translated the sagas into Norwegian. The Trumpet of the Northland (1700)
by Petter Dass details life in Norway. In the early eighteenth century, Ludvig
Holberg wrote in a variety of forms, including satire and comedy. Henrik
Wergeland (1808–1845) inspired the national romantic movement. As their
contribution to the discovery of a national culture, Peter Asbjørnsen and
Jørgen Moe collected the Norwegian Folktales (1841–1844). In
the nineteenth century, the dominant figure was Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906), whose
psychological dramas remain important in world literature. Knut Hamsun wrote
powerful novels in the twentieth century. Later writers include Sigurd Hoel,
Nordal Grieg, Tarjei Vesaas, and the Nobel Prize winner Sigrid Undset.
Significant postwar writers include Jens Bjørneboe, Bjorg Vik, and Kjartan
Flagstad.
Graphic Arts. Painters in the nineteenth century helped
establish a national romantic vision. Edvard Munch's (1863–1944) symbolist
works have been influential internationally. In sculpture, Gustav Vigeland's
Frogner Park sculptures are well known. Pottery, glass, jewelry, metalsmithing,
and textiles are central to Scandinavian design.
Performance Arts. The nation's greatest musician, Edvard Grieg
(1843–1907), was inspired by the folk themes of his homeland, as was the
violinist Ole Bull. Many cities have festivals for the performing arts. Perhaps
the most famous is Bergen's annual festival featuring music, drama, and dance.
Molde's jazz festival is notable. The National Theater and National Opera in
Oslo are important institutions.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences:
The universities at Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim, and
Tromso have extensive science and social science departments. Many of the
regional colleges are strong in one or both areas. A variety of research
institutes focus on applied knowledge, in fields as diverse as fish farming and
petroleum extraction.
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